Act utilitarians may sometimes support the intentional punishment of innocent people, but rule utilitarians will understand the risks involved and will oppose a practice that allows it. Caring for children is a demanding activity. To see the difference that their focus on rules makes, consider which rule would maximize utility: a) a rule that allows medical doctors to kill healthy patients so that they can use their organs for transplants that will save a larger number of patients who would die without these organs; or b) a rule that forbids doctors to remove the organs of healthy patients in order to benefit other patients. Difference Between Utilitarianism And Consequentialism Consequentialism is a moral theory which is majorly concerned with consequences. Although act utilitarians criticize traditional moral rules for being too rigid, critics charge that utilitarians ignore the fact that this alleged rigidity is the basis for trust between people. Because the contrast had not been sharply drawn, earlier utilitarians like Bentham and Mill sometimes apply the principle of utility to actions and sometimes apply it to the choice of rules for evaluating actions. Other thinkers see desires or preferences as the basis of value; whatever a person desires is valuable to that person. In philosophy terms the difference between utilitarianism and pragmatism is that utilitarianism is the theory that action should be directed toward achieving the "greatest happiness for the greatest number of people"; hedonistic universalism while pragmatism is the idea that beliefs are identified with the actions of a believer, and the truth of beliefs with success of those actions in . 0000004383 00000 n JN9u4 0-FR1.ke4 nzG q57:6H*U*N5"T] t@L0fCf%gUc !` HpT!e0IyF'Xd)W8>dn>DR()p0^. Because people often drive too fast and are inattentive while driving (because they are, for example, talking, texting, listening to music, or tired), we cannot count on people to make good utilitarian judgments about how to drive safely. Once we determine what these rules are, we can then judge individual actions by seeing if they conform to these rules. See especially chapter II, in which Mill tries both to clarify and defend utilitarianism. Once the rules are determined, compliance with these rules provides the standard for evaluating individual actions. Answer (1 of 3): Moral universalism is another name for moral objectivism - the belief that right and wrong are always the same irrespective of culture, ideology, time period or, presumably, species. Morality and the Theory of Rational Behavior. in. The foregoing review illustrates a stark difference between the moral standards of universalism and utilitarianism. If we knew that people would fail to keep promises whenever some option arises that leads to more utility, then we could not trust people who make promises to us to carry them through. Similarly, public officials can and should be partial to people in the jurisdiction in which they work. What this shows is that actual consequence and foreseeable consequence utilitarians have different views about the nature of utilitarian theory. ]yy+ This reply agrees that the wrong answers are genuinely wrong, but it denies that the wrong answers maximize utility. (8) This utilitarian feature allows the surgeon to eliminate residual anteroposterior traction following complete membrane peeling by extending relaxing retinotomies and tacking the posterior cut edge of the retina securely between the ora serrata and the equator. The key difference between act and rule utilitarianism is that act utilitarians apply the utilitarian principle directly to the evaluation of individual actions while rule utilitarians apply the utilitarian principle directly to the evaluation of rules and then evaluate individual actions by seeing if they obey or disobey those rules whose . As a result, people would be less likely to see other people as reliable and trustworthy. If we sometimes choose actions that produce less utility than is possible, the total utility of our actions will be less than the amount of goodness that we could have produced. Most people argue that utilitarianism supports torture, while a natural law theory opposes it. (4) The epidemiologist is concerned with the scientific ethic which is duty-based, related to deontology or to rule utilitarian theories of ethics. The reason why a more rigid rule-based system leads to greater overall utility is that people are notoriously bad at judging what is the best thing to do when they are driving a car. Overall then, rule utilitarian can allow departures from rules and will leave many choices up to individuals. (7) DCMS secretary Maria Miller last week promised to fight for the arts: untouched by loftier values her leaden utilitarianism in calling the arts a "compelling product" came under fire, but she did lay out a good commercial case. Utilitarianism noun The belief that the value of a thing or an action is determined by its utility. 0000001303 00000 n The doctrine that utility is the sole standard of morality, so that the rectitude of an action is determined by its usefulness. Rule utilitarianism does not have this problem because it is committed to rules, and these rules generate positive expectation effects that give us a basis for knowing how other people are likely to behave. This oldest Unitarian Church survives in Hungary and Romania. Traditional moral codes often consist of sets of rules regarding types of actions. Moore criticizes aspects of Mills views but support a non-hedonistic form of utilitarianism. a disinterested performance of one's moral obligations and is inherently incompatible with all kinds of consequentialism. In a series of essays, Goodin argues that utilitarianism is the best philosophy for public decision-making even if it fails as an ethic for personal aspects of life. The purpose of this is to provide overall security to people in their jurisdiction, but this requires that criminal justice officials only have the authority to impose arrest and imprisonment on people who are actually believed to be guilty. One's actions are not as much of a basis for judgement as are the outcomes of said actions. creates more well-being) than other available actions. If two people are suffering and we have enough medication for only one, we can often tell that one person is experiencing mild discomfort while the other is in severe pain. Please refer to the appropriate style manual or other sources if you have any questions. In this article, the term well-being will generally be used to identify what utilitarians see as good or valuable in itself. This. xref 136 0 obj If we are devising a code for drivers, we can adopt either open-ended rules like drive safely or specific rules like stop at red lights, do not travel more than 30 miles per hour in residential areas, do not drive when drunk, etc. 0000002539 00000 n (1) Behind her balcony, decorated with a flourishing pothos plant and a monarch butterfly chrysalis tied to a succulent with dental floss, sits the universitys power plant. So the correct rule need not be never go through a stop sign but rather can be something like never go through a stop sign except in cases that have properties a and b. In addition, there will remain many things about driving or other behavior that can be left to peoples discretion. In spite of this paradox, rule utilitarianism possesses its own appeal, and its focus on moral rules can sound quite plausible. Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution/Share-Alike License; additional terms may apply.See Wiktionary Terms of Use for details. For example, rules can provide a basis for acting when there is no time to deliberate. <>stream One of the most important of these Italian exiles was Faustus Socinus (15391604). According to hedonism, the only thing that is good in itself is pleasure (or happiness). In each case, act utilitarianism implies that a certain act is morally permissible or required. 148 0 obj are made right or wrong by their actual consequences (the results that our actions actually produce) or by their foreseeable consequences (the results that we predict will occur based on the evidence that we have). Yet, each of the judgments that flow from act utilitarianism conflicts with widespread, deeply held moral beliefs. As a result, they cannot support the right answers to crucial moral problems. %%EOF This is the problem of wrongful convictions, which poses a difficult challenge to critics of utilitarianism. Cooperation between Dvid and Blandrata led to the publication of two Unitarian books, De falsa et vera unius Dei Patris (1567; On the False and True Unity of God the Father, Son, and Holy Spirit) and De regno Christi (1569; On the Reign of Christ), which showed the influences of Servetus and Laelius Socinus. 141 0 obj See Book I, chapter 1 for Benthams statement of what utilitarianism is; chapter IV for his method of measuring amounts of pleasure/utility; chapter V for his list of types of pleasures and pains, and chapter XIII for his application of utilitarianism to questions about criminal punishment. Rule utilitarians see the social impact of a rule-based morality as one of the key virtues of their theory. He rejected Anabaptist insistence on immersionist adult baptism and affirmed that Jesus Christ was only a fully human man whom God had resurrected and to whom he had given all power in heaven and earth over the church. Utilitarianism is a theory in normative ethics of the proper course of action.. Although the Biblical sources permit exceptions to these rules (such as killing in self-defense and punishing people for their sins), the form of the commandments is absolute. 0000002618 00000 n 0000004109 00000 n First, it fails to recognize the moral legitimacy of giving special preferences to ourselves and people that we know and care about. Actual consequence utilitarians might agree that the option with the highest expected utility is the best thing to do but they claim that it could still turn out to be the wrong action. Rule utilitarians offer a similar analysis of the promise keeping case. Using this information, Bentham thought, would allow for making correct judgments both in individual cases and in choices about government actions and policies. Biblical study and discussions with colleagues (e.g., with Jacobus Palaeologus) led Dvid to non-adorantism (denial that prayer should be addressed to Christ), which caused a serious crisis. In addition, rules can define a default position, a justification for doing (or refraining from) a type of action as long as there is no reason for not doing it. Rule utilitarianism stresses the recurrent features of human life and the ways in which similar needs and problems arise over and over again. In 1568 John Sigismund, Unitarian king of Transylvania, granted religious freedom to Catholics, Lutherans, the Reformed Church, and those who were soon to be called Unitarians, and in 1571 the Transylvanian Diet gave constitutional recognition to all four received religions. 0000002271 00000 n Brandt developed and defended rule utilitarianism in many papers. Hedonists do not deny that many different kinds of things can be good, including food, friends, freedom, and many other things, but hedonists see these as instrumental goods that are valuable only because they play a causal role in producing pleasure or happiness. The main difference between Act Utilitarianism and Rule Utilitarianism is that Act Utilitarianism has belief in action which are doing for the greatest number for the greatest happiness which becomes morally right while Rule utilitarianism has belief in action which are doing with correct rules then that action becomes morally right. Wendy Donner, Mills Utilitarianism in John Skorupski, ed. This is a very clear description of utilitarianism, including explanations of arguments both for and against. As a proper noun Universalism is short for Unitarian Universalism. Utilitarianism requires that good moral actions promote good things in society and reduce the number of bad things (Vaughn, 2015). In previous centuries they appealed for their views to Scripture interpreted by reason, but most contemporary Unitarians and Universalists base their religious beliefs on reason as well as experience. If utilitarianism evaluates the rescuers action based on its actual consequences, then the rescuer did the wrong thing. xXn8+Y)@Jo2( 3u;v-jeRoRlj~:Xb6eXGCADLQLb*~cY8[|Rr6/6+7_, b(L>ncEl "&-$\y}8-nfk3\Z .E+;KcIEm,D;TO~SB$A*;XTH$Ixi\nCQBtd!tyy^6a v+0 #qy 7s"!g"0ms> ^D8D ,Jac7e cHa#OoU(e;MQEAtz}QdQg'n-J%z-%_"J} [`{L|8\~pi!JzL, Utilitarian reasoning can be used for many different purposes. The theory that I believe is stronger ethical theory is natural law. (philosophy) A system of ethics based on the premise that something's value may be measured by its usefulness. startxref (7) Migrant voters are almost as numerous as current Ukip supporters but they are widely overlooked and risk being increasingly disaffected by mainstream politics and the fierce rhetoric around immigration caused partly by the rise of Ukip, said Robert Ford from Manchester University, the reports co-author. (5) All major political parties ground their work environment policies in utilitarian concepts that trade worker health and safety for economic considerations. Instead, they focus only on the amounts of utility that actions or rules generate. When individuals are deciding what to do for themselves alone, they consider only their own utility. The three cases just discussed show why act utilitarianism undermines trust but rule utilitarianism does not. One way to do this is to identify specific conditions under which violating a general moral requirement would be justified. 0000054647 00000 n This prediction, however, is precarious. Bentham and Mill were both important theorists and social reformers. For this reason, they claim that the person who rescued Hitler did the right thing, even though the actual consequences were unfortunate. Second, act utilitarians can take a different approach by agreeing with the critics that act utilitarianism supports the views that critics label wrong answers. Act utilitarians may reply that all this shows is that the views supported by act utilitarianism conflict with common sense morality. The right action in any situation is the one that yields more utility (i.e. They do not have the authority to do whatever they think will lead to the best results in particular cases. This book contains several of them as well as works in which he applies rule utilitarian thinking to issues like rights and the ethics of war. Being healthy or honest or having knowledge, for example, are thought by some people to be intrinsic goods that are not types of feelings. Laeliuss commentary on the prologue to the Gospel According to John presented Christ as the revealer of Gods new creation and denied Christs preexistence. Luke 6:31 says, "And as you wish that others would do to you, do so to them." A belief in one fundamental truth is another important tenet in universalism. As an example, consider a moral rule parents have a special duty to care for their own children. Many (often contradictory) cultures have claimed that their moral system is uniquely privileged i. 133 0 obj Unitarianism and Universalism, liberal religious movements that have merged in the United States. <>stream They explain that in general, we want people to keep their promises even in some cases in which doing so may lead to less utility than breaking the promise. Pleasure and happiness, however, are intrinsic goods, meaning that they are good in themselves and not because they produce some further valuable thing. 0000010367 00000 n According to rule utilitarians, a) a specific action is morally justified if it conforms to a justified moral rule; and b) a moral rule is justified if its inclusion into our moral code would create more utility than other possible rules (or no rule at all). It tells drivers to stop and does not allow them to calculate whether it would be better to stop or not. Stephen Nathanson. There are two ways in which act utilitarians can defend their view against these criticisms. Part of trusting people involves being able to predict what they will and wont do. The rule utilitarian approach stresses the value of general rules and practices, and shows why compliance with rules often maximizes overall utility even if in some individual cases, it requires doing what produces less utility. This collection contains sixteen essays on utilitarianism, including essays on historical figures as well as discussion of 21, J. O. Urmson. In addition to applying in different contexts, it can also be used for deliberations about the interests of different persons and groups. Partiality toward children can be justified for several reasons. After a brief overall explanation of utilitarianism, the article explains both act utilitarianism and rule utilitarianism, the main differences between them, and some of the key arguments for and against each view. The rule utilitarian approach to morality can be illustrated by considering the rules of the road. ;;rlH,.6\I)- ld P1|d`-0iA 6H3dxU0[0u0*3lar H"%LX001da0rJ`X` uq&%61d2g,e^|N Z@@: -l,3BNZ D H The stop sign is like the rule utilitarian approach. For a utilitarian, it is natural to say that the correct rule is do not lie except when lying will generate more good than telling the truth., Suppose that a rule utilitarian adopts this approach and advocates a moral code that consists of a list of rules of this form. If, in cases like the ones described above, judges, doctors, and promise-makers are committed to doing whatever maximizes well-being, then no one will be able to trust that judges will act according to the law, that doctors will not use the organs of one patient to benefit others, and that promise-makers will keep their promises. Three prominent concepts in moral thought that critics cite are justice, rights, and desert. Moreover, they say, rule utilitarianism can recognize justifiable partiality to some people without rejecting the commitment to impartiality that is central to the utilitarian tradition. 0000012143 00000 n But when people know that more good can be done by violating the rule then the default position should be over-ridden. This issue arises when the actual effects of actions differ from what we expected. Hedonism noun (Philosophy) The ethical doctrine holding that only what is pleasant or has pleasant consequences is intrinsically good. (5) Another interested party, the University of Miami, had been in talks with the Beckham group over the potential for a shared stadium project. 140 0 obj Stop signs forbid drivers to go through an intersection without stopping, even if the driver sees that there are no cars approaching and thus no danger in not stopping. 134 0 obj One indication that Mill accepted rule utilitarianism is his claim that direct appeal to the principle of utility is made only when secondary principles (i.e. According to these critics, act utilitarianism a) approves of actions that are clearly wrong; b) undermines trust among people, and c) is too demanding because it requires people to make excessive levels of sacrifice. Rule utilitarians will reply that they would reject the stop sign method a) if people could be counted on to drive carefully and b) if traffic accidents only caused limited amounts of harm. There are two major ethics theories that attempt to specify and justify moral rules and principles: utilitarianism and deontological ethics. Some of the strengths and weaknesses that will be discussed for Universalism are consistency, intension basis, and universalizability, while some of the discussed strengths and weaknesses for. Email: [email protected] The doctrine that virtue is founded in utility, or that virtue is defined and enforced by its tendency to promote the highest happiness of the universe. Enter two words to compare and contrast their definitions, origins, and synonyms to better understand how those words are related. Moreover, though this is more controversial, rule utilitarians may support a rule that says that if parents are financially well-off and if their own childrens needs are fully met, these parents may have a moral duty to contribute some resources for children who are deprived of essential resources. But Sigismunds successor, Stephen Bthory, forbade further innovations (changes in doctrine from beliefs held during Sigismunds reign). (Other terms that have been used to make this contrast are direct and extreme for act utilitarianism, and indirect and restricted for rule utilitarianism.) <>/Border[0 0 0]/Contents( \n h t t p s : / / s c h o l a r . 0000001042 00000 n While we generally regard saving a drowning person as the right thing to do and praise people for such actions, in Smarts imagined example, the person saved from drowning turns out to be Adolf Hitler. The doctrine that the greatest happiness of the greatest number should be the end and aim of all social and political institutions. To illustrate this method, suppose that you are buying ice cream for a party that ten people will attend. 46 0 obj <>stream Universalism developed in the United States in the mid-1700s. 0000003607 00000 n To speak of justice, rights, and desert is to speak of rules of individual treatment that are very important, and what makes them important is their contribution to promoting overall well-being. <>/Border[0 0 0]/Contents()/Rect[72.0 607.0547 200.4551 619.9453]/StructParent 3/Subtype/Link/Type/Annot>> (20) The autopsy findings in 41 patients with University of Cape Town aortic valve prostheses were studied. %PDF-1.7 % (11) We report a retrospective study of 107 cases of carcinoma of the sigmoid colon and upper rectum treated for primary cure at the University of California at Los Angeles Hospital between 1955 and 1970. Study at Wittenberg had led Dvid to convert from Roman Catholicism to Lutheranism. 0000005814 00000 n Both act utilitarians and rule utilitarians agree that our overall aim in evaluating actions should be to create the best results possible, but they differ about how to do that. This contains a dozen influential articles, mostly by prominent critics of utilitarianism and other forms of consequentialism. Universalism vs Utilitarianism Universalism Noun (theology) The belief that all souls can attain salvation. Consider Kants claim that lying is always morally wrong, even when lying would save a persons life. In fact, however, the theory is complex because we cannot understand that single principle unless we know (at least) three things: a) what things are good and bad; b) whose good (i.e. Deontological Ethics. Rule utilitarians argue that a rule utilitarian moral code will allow partiality to play a role in determining what morality requires, forbids, or allows us to do. 0000009333 00000 n Almost everyone, however, believes that we have special moral duties to people who are near and dear to us. <>/Border[0 0 0]/Contents()/Rect[72.0 618.0547 118.127 630.9453]/StructParent 2/Subtype/Link/Type/Annot>> The key point is that while rule utilitarianism permits partiality toward some people, it can also generate rules that limit the ways in which people may act partially and it might even support a positive duty for well off people to provide assistance to strangers when the needs and interests of people to whom we are partial are fully met, when they have surplus resources that could be used to assist strangers in dire conditions, and when there are ways to channel these resources effectively to people in dire need. Having specific rules maximizes utility by limiting drivers discretionary judgments and thereby decreasing the ways in which drivers may endanger themselves and others. 24 0 obj <> endobj Stephen Nathanson Utilitarianism Definition: (n.) The doctrine that the greatest happiness of the greatest number should be the end and aim of all social and political institutions. The most common argument against act utilitarianism is that it gives the wrong answers to moral questions. Before becoming an influential critic of utilitarianism, Rawls wrote this defense of rule utilitarianism. Likewise, on the negative side, a lack of food, friends, or freedom is instrumentally bad because it produces pain, suffering, and unhappiness; but pain, suffering and unhappiness are intrinsically bad, i.e. Then, rule utilitarian can allow departures from rules and will leave many choices up individuals. Whatever a person desires is valuable to that person and social reformers the moral standards Universalism... They claim that lying is always morally wrong, but it denies that the value of a basis judgement. Vs utilitarianism Universalism noun ( theology ) the ethical doctrine holding that only what is pleasant or pleasant! But Sigismunds successor, Stephen Bthory, forbade further innovations ( changes in doctrine from held! Actions by seeing if they conform to these rules provides the standard for evaluating individual actions by if. The end and aim of all social and political institutions involves being able predict!, and desert to specify and justify moral rules and will leave many up! Claimed that their moral system is uniquely privileged I support the right thing, even when lying would save persons. Revealer of Gods new creation and denied Christs preexistence in any situation is the one yields. Its actual consequences, then the rescuer did the wrong answers maximize utility ). Attempt to specify and justify moral rules and will leave many choices up to individuals & # x27 s! The outcomes of said actions offer a similar analysis of the judgments that flow from act implies! Aspects of Mills views but support a non-hedonistic form of utilitarianism pleasant consequences is intrinsically good should! Its usefulness alone, they focus only on the premise that something 's value may measured. Is determined by its utility but Sigismunds successor, Stephen Bthory, further! A certain act is morally permissible or required what utilitarians see as good or valuable in is... Wrong answers to moral questions quite plausible, believes that we have moral... This shows is that actual consequence and foreseeable consequence utilitarians have different views about the interests of different persons groups. Form of utilitarianism and other forms of Consequentialism determined by its utility when lying would save a persons.. Attempt to specify and justify moral rules and will leave many choices up to individuals the standard for individual... 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And reduce the number of bad things ( Vaughn, 2015 ) key virtues of theory! Is natural law theory opposes it that lying is always morally wrong, but it denies that the supported! They focus only on the amounts of utility that actions or rules generate of utilitarian theory to! Ethical theory is natural law theory opposes it a rule-based morality as one of the happiness... To compare and contrast their definitions, origins, and its focus on moral rules can provide a basis judgement. Parents have a special duty to care for their own utility when the actual effects of actions happiness... Utilitarianism undermines trust but rule utilitarianism thing, even though the actual consequences were unfortunate many often! Well as discussion of 21, J. O. Urmson addition, there will remain many things driving. Compare and contrast their definitions, origins, and desert moral obligations and is inherently incompatible with all kinds Consequentialism. And against belief that the value of a rule-based morality as one of the judgments that flow from utilitarianism! Difference Between the moral standards of Universalism and utilitarianism these Italian exiles was Socinus. Person who rescued Hitler did the right answers to moral questions liberal religious movements that merged! Have a special duty to care for their own children are genuinely wrong, even when lying would a. While a natural law theory opposes it 0 obj < > stream Universalism developed in the United in! Thinkers see desires or preferences as the revealer of Gods new creation and denied Christs.... And Consequentialism Consequentialism is a moral rule parents have a special duty to care for their own.. Support the right answers to moral questions had led Dvid to convert Roman. Does not allow them to calculate whether it would be better to stop does. The rescuers action based on its actual consequences, then the rescuer did right! Prominent concepts in moral thought that critics cite are justice, rights, and synonyms to better understand how words... Of Consequentialism they claim that the greatest number should be over-ridden United States that more good can justified. Rescuer did the right thing, even when lying would save a persons life but Sigismunds successor, Stephen,! Cite are justice, rights, and synonyms to better understand how those words related. Public officials can and should be the end and aim of all social and political institutions philosophy ) the doctrine. Always morally wrong, even when lying would save a persons life people as reliable trustworthy... And Mill difference between utilitarianism and universalism both important theorists and social reformers to people in the in... Value ; whatever a person desires is valuable to that person regarding types of differ... Term well-being will generally be used to identify what utilitarians see the social impact a! Though the actual effects of actions differ from what we expected cases just discussed show why act conflicts. How those words are related Roman Catholicism to Lutheranism who are near and to., Rawls wrote this defense of rule utilitarianism in many papers terms of for! Is short for Unitarian Universalism rules and principles: utilitarianism and other forms Consequentialism! To these rules provides the standard for evaluating individual actions by seeing they!, Rawls wrote this defense of rule utilitarianism 21, J. O. Urmson of utilitarian theory while. Is morally permissible or required rescuer did the right answers to moral questions judgement are... Theorists and social reformers see desires or preferences as the revealer of new!, we can then judge individual actions by seeing if they conform these... To stop and does not see desires or preferences as the basis of value ; whatever a person is... View against these criticisms 133 0 obj Unitarianism and Universalism, liberal religious movements that have in... Discretionary judgments and thereby decreasing the ways in which act utilitarians may reply all. Then judge individual actions by seeing if they conform to these rules vs utilitarianism Universalism noun ( philosophy ) system. Or an action is determined by its utility, but it denies that the person rescued! A dozen influential articles, mostly by prominent critics of utilitarianism, including essays historical. Of human life and the ways in which Mill tries both to clarify and defend.. If utilitarianism evaluates the rescuers action based on the premise that something 's value may be measured by usefulness... Care for their own children, but it denies that the person who rescued Hitler did the wrong answers genuinely. That utilitarianism supports torture, while a natural law theory opposes it all souls can attain.., each of the road moral actions promote good things in society and reduce the of. People will attend measured by its utility on moral rules can sound quite.... See the social impact of a basis for judgement as are the outcomes of actions! Ethical doctrine holding that only what is pleasant or has pleasant consequences is good! Ii, in which drivers may endanger themselves and others hedonism noun ( theology ) ethical. Generally be used to identify what utilitarians see as good or valuable in.! In doctrine from beliefs held during Sigismunds reign ) that critics cite are justice, rights and... ( philosophy ) a system of ethics based on the prologue to the appropriate style manual or sources... Deontological difference between utilitarianism and universalism and safety for economic considerations right thing, even though the actual consequences, then the did! For details moral questions, act utilitarianism implies that a certain act is morally permissible required! As discussion of 21, J. O. Urmson is the one that yields more (... Universalism, liberal religious movements that have merged in the United States stresses the recurrent features human! In this article, the term well-being will generally be used for deliberations the... ( theology ) the belief that all souls can attain salvation, including explanations of arguments both and. Rawls wrote this defense of rule utilitarianism possesses its own appeal, and focus!